Motion Light Sensors

As technology becomes more stylish and unobtrusive, with increasingly compact phones and computers offering an expanding number of features, other industries have followed suit. The desire to accomplish more with less has extended into security systems, where devices such as motion light sensors provide high levels of security while taking up little space and using less energy than older security systems. The technology itself, however, isn’t anything new—the detection of infrared energy, the primary mechanism in a light sensor, has been used in numerous other applications prior to its application in security devices and in-home lighting systems.

How Motion Light Sensors Work

The process by which a motion light sensor detects motion and triggers a response is contingent upon a passive infrared detector (PIR or PID). The word passive indicates that the sensor doesn’t emit infrared, rather receives infrared data—a PID picks up on the infrared energy (light) emitted by an object, such as a person. The difference in temperature, as detected by the PID, is the primary element in triggering a response.

A PID motion sensor is typically composed of a printed circuit board with a pyroelectric sensor chip, housed within a mounting structure, which is placed in a location where the sensor is completely unobstructed. The printed circuit board serves as the decoding device, and interprets the signals the pyroelectric chip receives. The chip responds to temperature, and when the amount of infrared surpasses a pre-set limit, the pyroelectric chip will release a signal, thus activating a light or an alarm.

In order for infrared light to reach the chip sensor, a small window is built into the mounted structure, directly exposing the sensor to the designated, monitored area. If a person enters the given area, the change in infrared as a result of their body temperature is detected by the sensor, through the small window. The window is transparent for infrared light, so it doesn’t block any signals, but it also helps protect the device form dust and bugs, both of which can trigger a false response.

In order to further avoid false responses, care must be taken in selecting an installation area. Avoiding contact with air vents, such as HVAC vents, can help prevent fluctuations in air temperature from activating the sensor.

Motion Light Sensor Applications

A motion sensor light triggers a response when motion is detected. They can be installed indoors, on walls, ceilings, and in doorways, or outside, on the exterior of buildings and homes. Some kinds of motion sensor lights, called occupancy sensors, operate by turning off lights in unoccupied rooms and spaces. When motion is detected, the sensor triggers the light; when motion stops being detected, the sensor shuts off the light. Occupancy sensors are one low-maintenance method for cutting down on electricity bill charges from lights left on when no one is home or in a room.

Occupancy sensors can be controlled and adjusted to meet the user’s needs. Typically, two forms of control are offered: sensitivity and time delay. A sensitivity setting enables the user to adjust the magnitude of motion that must occur to trigger the sensor. If properly set, a person walking in a room with a motion sensor should trigger the sensor, but a fly passing through shouldn’t result in turning on the lights. A time delay setting allows the user to determine how long the lights should remain on after the sensor is triggered, if no further motion is detected.

Motion light sensors can also be used in external applications, on the outside of homes and buildings, to sound an alarm or to turn on an outside light to announce a person’s presence.

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Culture Of Taiwan

Language in Taiwan
The official language of Taiwan is Mandarin Chinese, but because many Taiwanese are of southern Fujianese descent, Min-nan (the Southern Min dialect, or Holo) is also widely spoken. The smaller groups of Hakka people and aborigines have also preserved their own languages. Many elderly people can also speak some Japanese, as they were subjected to Japanese education before Taiwan was returned to Chinese rule in 1945 after the Japanese occupation which lasted for half a century. The most popular foreign language in Taiwan is English, which is part of the regular school curriculum.

Taiwanese People, Society and Culture

The People

Taiwan’s population is mostly Han Chinese who were born on the mainland or have ancestors that were. They are divided into three groups based on the dialect of Chinese they speak: Taiwanese, Hakka, and Mandarin. Taiwan also has a small population of aborigines who comprise about 2 percent of the total population.

Most people in Taiwan have traditional values based on Confucian ethics; however, pressures from industrialization are now challenging these values. Still, some traditional values remain strong, including piety toward parents, ancestor worship, a strong emphasis on education and work, and the importance of "face." Since industrialization, women enjoy greater freedom and a higher social status, individual creativity is regarded as equally important as social conformity and acquiring material goods and recognition is increasingly important.

Some tensions exist between social groups. The majority of people in Taiwan came from or have ancestors who came from mainland China before 1949. They are known as Taiwanese and enjoy the highest standard of living in Taiwan. Because of their wealth and numbers, they also have the greatest influence on economic and political issues.

Mainlanders are people who arrived in Taiwan after mainland China fell to the Communists in 1949. Many Mainlanders work for the government. Tensions between Taiwanese and Mainlanders have eased substantially. The aborigines, who live mainly in rural villages, are the least privileged social group in Taiwan.

Confucianism


The teachings of Confucius describe the position of the individual in society. Confucianism is a system of behaviours and ethics that stress the obligations of people towards one another based upon their relationship. The basic tenets are based upon five different relationships:

• Ruler and subject
• Husband and wife
• Parents and children
• Brothers and sisters
• Friend and friend

Confucianism stresses duty, loyalty, honor, filial piety, respect for age and seniority, and sincerity.

Harmony / Group Relations

Due to the Confucian tenets Taiwanese culture is a collective one. There is a need to belong to a group larger than themselves, be it their family, school, work group, or country. They treat people with respect and dignity regardless of their personal feelings. In order to maintain a sense of harmony, they will act with decorum at all times and not do anything to cause someone else public embarrassment. They are willing to subjugate their own feelings for the good of the group.

The Concept of Face / Mien-tzu

The concept of face is extremely important to the Taiwanese. Face is difficult to translate into words but essential reflects a person's reputation, dignity, and prestige. Face can be lost, saved or given to another person. Companies, as well as individuals, have face and this often provides the rationale behind business and personal interactions.

Giving Face

Face can be given to people by complimenting them, showing them respect, or doing anything that increases their self-esteem. Specific examples include:
- Complimenting individuals (be careful not to single out individuals when the work was a corporate effort)
- Praising group (company, school, family, country)

Losing Face

You can cause someone to loose face by causing someone embarrassment, and/or tarnishing their image and reputation. Examples include:
- Direct or indirect criticism of an individual or group
- Giving someone a gift that is beneath their status
- Turning down an invitation or a gesture of friendship
- Not keeping your word
- Demonstrations of anger or excessive emotionalism

Saving Face

In the event that you cause someone to lose face, or someone is embarrassed by circumstances that arise, the best recourse is to appropriate blame for problems that arise. For example:
- Appropriating blame for problems that arise:
- "Perhaps I didn’t explain myself clearly."
- "Oh that kind of thing happens in our country too."
- "I have done the same thing myself."

"Guanxi" – Connections/Relationships

Most Taiwanese business is conducted among friends, friends of friends, and family. Such connections, or "guanxi" (pronounced gwan-she) are developed with people at your own level or of a higher status in both business and social situations. "Guanxi" opens doors, smoothes out problems, and leads to even more connections.

Culture, Customs and Etiquette in Taiwan Meeting and Greeting

• Greetings are formal and the oldest person in a group is always greeted first.
• Handshakes are the most common form of greeting with foreigners.
• Many Taiwanese look towards the ground as a sign of respect when greeting someone.
• You need not follow their example as they understand that westerners tend to smile warmly when introduced.
• Most greetings include the rhetorical question, "Have you eaten?"
• The Chinese traditionally have 3 names. The surname, or family name is first and is followed by one or two personal names.
• Chinese women do not change their names when they marry other Chinese, and the children’s last name will generally follow that of the father.
• Often their personal names have some poetic or otherwise significant meaning, so asking about the meaning is a good way to break the ice.
• When you are first meeting a person, address the person by their academic, professional, or honorific title and their surname.
• If those you are meeting want to move to a first name basis, they will advise you which name to use.
• Some Chinese adopt more western names in business and may ask you to call them by that name.

Gift Giving Etiquette

• Gifts are given at Chinese New Year, weddings, births and funerals.
• The Taiwanese like food and a nice food basket or a bottle of good quality alcohol are gifts.
• A gift may be refused the first time it is offered out of politeness. Attempt to offer the gift again; however, never force the issue.
• Do not give scissors, knives or other cutting utensils as they traditionally indicate that you want to sever the relationship.
• Do not give clocks, handkerchiefs or straw sandals as they are associated with funerals and death.
• Do not give white flowers or chrysanthemums as they signify death.
• Do not wrap gifts in white, blue or black paper.
• Red, pink and yellow are considered to be auspicious colours.
• Elaborate gift wrapping is imperative.
• Do not give an odd number of gifts, since odd numbers are considered unlucky.
• Four is also an unlucky number. Do not give four of anything.
• Eight is the luckiest number. Giving eight of something brings luck to the recipient.
• Avoid giving anything made in Taiwan.
• Present gifts using both hands.
• Gifts are not opened when received.
• Gifts are generally reciprocated. Do not give a lavish gift unless it is to reciprocate an expensive gift that you have received.

Dining Etiquette

The Taiwanese prefer to entertain in public places rather than in their home, especially when entertaining foreigners. If you are invited to a Taiwanese home, it will happen once you have developed a relationship and should be considered a great honour.

Meeting people

• A handshake is the common greeting.
• Handshakes are not as firm as in many other countries.
• Men should wait for a woman to extend her hand.
• Many Taiwanese lower their eyes during the greeting as a sign of respect.
• Greet or introduce the most important person first.
• If you are in a group, try to assemble in rank order, with the most senior person first.
• People are usually addressed by their title and surname.
• If the person does not have a corporate or government title, use the honorific Mister, Miss, or Madame followed by the surname.
• Wait until invited before using someone's first name.
• Business cards are exchanged after the initial introductions.
• Have one side of your business card translated into Chinese using the traditional script not the simplified script as used in China.
• Business cards are exchanged using both hands.
• Present your card so the typeface faces the recipient.
• Examine a business card carefully before putting it on the table next to you or in a business card case.
• Treat business cards with respect. The way you handle someone’s card is indicative of the value you place on the relationship.
• Never write on someone's card in their presence.

Communication Style

Taiwanese value a well crafted message. They appreciate sharing a deep and broad contextual understanding in order for the core message to be delivered and understood. That context comes in the form of words, gestures and facial expressions. Brevity is not particularly valued, especially if it sacrifices something in the delivery.

It is important for people from direct cultures (USA, Germany, Scandinavia, etc), where context is not as highly valued and brevity is crucial, to realize that messages might be misconstrued as rude and the information provided might be inadequate because of its lack of context. People from direct communications cultures should take care to patiently listen for the information needed. Furthermore, a tendency to have few gestures may make it more difficult for the message to be understood so be prepared for questions.

Business Meetings

Meeting schedules are not highly structured in Taiwan. There may be an agenda, but it serves as a guideline for the discussion and may act as a springboard to other related business ideas. As relationships are valued, there may be some time in the meeting devoted to non-business discussions. Time is not considered more important than completing a meeting satisfactorily, therefore meetings will continue until the discussion is completed and may extend well past a scheduled end time.

As stated above, people in Taiwan are very indirect in their communication and are as concerned with the effect of their words on others as they are with the content of their communication. They take great care to avoid communicating anything directly that would hurt or offend a colleague as it would cause a loss of "face". They will gently push their ideas forward and wait for others to respond. If they disagree with an idea, they will simply remain silent.

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Seam Sealants

Seam sealants are chemical adhesives designed to protect joints hermetically against moisture, gas and thermal intrusions. Various kinds of sealant are available for a wide range of products, although they are typically used astiling and automotive seals.

Seam sealants are often made of polymer so that they expand while setting, filling out the seal and solidifying the connection. Seam sealants are typically used on vinyl flooring and sheet steel connections, such as in automotive applications. Seam sealants are usually available in tubes with spray/swirl applicator heads or as spreads intended for use with a brush or spatula. Application is designed to be simple so as not to require a lot of time or a specific skill set to use. Some seam sealants require 24 hours or more to set, while others set much faster and are ready for paint in twenty minutes.

Polyurethane Sealants

For automotive applications, different metal sheet units are attached and cemented together with seam sealants. Seam sealant spread and tape are available for trunks, drip rails, core supports, roof seams, cowls and many other areas. Seam sealants must be applied during various phases of automobile construction and maintenance, such as initial assembly and restoration projects. Sealants prevent smoke and moisture from entering the car interior or motor area.

Typically, automotive seam sealants are applied with a cartridge gun which resembles a caulking gun. For non-bodywork areas, bush-applied sealants can be used. Automotive seam sealants often set much faster than other types of seam sealants so that primer or paint coatings can be applied.

Polyurethane sealants are also commonly used in building construction, appearing in metal roofing, coping joints, vents and parapet walls and around window openings. Like automotive sealants, these construction sealants are also paintable after a short set time, but they also come in a variety of colors, including clear.

Epoxy Sealants

Sealants used for floor tiling are often made of epoxy, a combination polymer, or copolymer, that features sticky resin and a polyamine hardener component. Epoxy can be applied with special cartridge guns or with paint brushes or spatulas, and generally takes much longer to set than automotive examples. While some floors are laid without the use of seam sealants, sealants can help prevent moisture seep beneath the tiling which causes warping. The hermetic seal created by the sealant keeps out moisture, maintaining a level flooring, and also prevents dirt and bacteria from lodging between tiles, making clean up easier and more health efficient.

Once set, epoxy sealants create a very strong bond between structural elements. Because of this strength and their water-resistant properties, epoxy sealants are used in other applications that might come in contact with water, including technical and recreational marine products. Surfboards feature fins attached with epoxy adhesive sealants, while robot submersibles use epoxy sealants for waterproofing sensitive electronic parts. Epoxy sealants are also used in printed circuit boards designed to protect the electronic components from moisture.

General Sealant Recommendations

Sealant application requires minimal preparation, but the set-up steps are important to ensure a level, adhesive, and strong application. Seams needs to be cleared of dirt and other build-up to enable the sealant to properly bond to the surface of the seam and the sites of the materials being sealed. Additionally, moisture and gas must be absent during applications, because these elements can have unwanted effects on the sealant setting process. Moisture can cause the sealant to remain tacky and refuse to set firmly. Temperature is also an important factor in sealant application. If an application environment is too hot, usually in excess of 120 degrees Fahrenheit, the sealant remains tacky and will not set, while cold temperatures can make the sealant too hard to spread or apply.

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Adhesives And Sealants

Although sealants and adhesives share many characteristics, they are not chemically or structurally identical and cannot always be used interchangeably. A sealant is typically a viscous material that becomes solid upon application, where it creates a barrier. The sealant barrier inhibits the penetration of many different elements, such as liquid, air, fire, or noise, depending on the exact nature of the sealant. A sealant is generally used to close gaps that other materials cannot successfully close. An adhesive is a mixture that bonds items together, and can exist in many states, such as liquid or powder. It often requires the application of a set temperature to cure it, and is frequently used to bond thin materials. Some very strong sealants qualify as adhesives, but weaker sealants primarily fill space, as is the case with sealant putty.

Sealant and Adhesive Functions

Whereas adhesives’ primary purpose is to bond two objects together, sealants have different functions. As stated above, they are intended to fill a space between two objects, not necessarily bond them strongly together. Secondly, sealants are responsible for creating a barrier, by means of their chemical composition and physical structure, as well as by properly adhering to the objects surrounding a space. Thirdly, sealants should maintain these functional properties under the specified conditions, if they are properly used and maintained. Adhesives, on the other hand, are not used to fill spaces and are available at much higher strengths.

Additives

Adhesives and sealants also differ in the way additives affect their chemical and physical composition. Additives are classified based on the function they perform rather than their composition, and although sealants and adhesives may share other chemical similarities sometimes they require separate additives.

Common Adhesive Additives

In many adhesives, catalysts are added to enable polymerization and cross-linking. In epoxy adhesives, catalysts include amines and anhydrides. Reactive acrylic adhesive systems also commonly include catalysts, such as peroxides, and UV adhesives often contain photo-initiators.

Colorants (additives that add color) are also frequently added to adhesives, and include dyes and pigments, such as titanium oxide coated particles of mica.

Platicisers, which typically increase the flexibility and workability of an adhesive, are another common type of adhesive additive. In latex adhesives, for example, benzoate platicisers are added because they work well in conjunction with base ingredients (for a latex adhesive, namely polyvinyl acetate or ethylene-vinyl acetate), to increase the mixture’s flexibility. Some adhesives, such as most types of hot melts, do not require plasticisers.

Fillers, additives that enhance material properties, are commonly used in both sealants and adhesives and include: mica, alumina, talc, silica, and calcium carbonate.

Common Sealant Additives

Sealants commonly require stabilizers, and as with adhesives the stabilizer will depend on the primary components already present in the mixture. A stabilizer’s primary role is to increase the shelf-life of the sealant, although it also helps improve properties. Plasticisers are also frequently used; in latex sealants, where the primary base ingredient is vinyl acrylic, phthalates are a common plasticiser additive. Polyurethane sealants require plasticizers to soften the mixture, in which case benzoates are typically added.

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Culture Of Argentina

Language in Argentina
Although Argentina's official language is Spanish, Argentinian Spanish is different from the Spanish spoken in Spain. In some ways it sounds more like Italian than Spanish. There are also many other languages spoken in Argentina, including Italian, German, English and French. Indigenous languages that are spoken today include Tehuelche, Guarani and Quechua. 


Europeans or Latin Americans?

. Most Argentines are primarily of European descent, which separates them from other Latin American countries where European and Indian cultures are more mixed.
. Culturally and emotionally, Argentines often seem more European than Latin American.

Argentinean Family Values

. The family is the centre of Argentine life with extended families still having prominence.
. The heads of powerful families command widespread respect, but with this comes a responsibility to care for others in terms of security, jobs, etc and to maintain personal and family honour.
. Honour is in all respects the be all and end all and it routinely affects day-to-day life at home, in the community and in business.

Religion in Argentina

. The Argentine constitution guarantees religious freedom.
. Roman Catholicism acts as the official state religion.
. Other world religions, notably Islam, are gaining a foothold within the country during the last ten to fifteen years.

 Expressive Communication Style

. Argentines are on the whole open, blunt, and direct, yet are able to remain tactful and diplomatic.
. Argentines are a warm peoples and their unreservedness brings to the fore their passion and sentimentality.
. In addition they are close communicators physically so will often touch each other when speaking and maintain little physical distance between speakers.

General Etiquette and Customs
Meeting Etiquette

. Initial greetings are formal and follow a set protocol of greeting the eldest or most important person first.
. A standard handshake, with direct eye contact and a welcoming smile will suffice.
. Maintaining eye contact indicates interest.
. In general, Argentines prefer third-party introductions, so you should wait for your host or hostess to introduce you to others at a small gathering.
. When leaving, say good-bye to each person individually.

Gift Giving Etiquette

. If invited to dinner at an Argentine's home bring a small gift for the hostess.
. Since taxes on imported spirits are extremely high, a bottle of imported spirits is always well received.
. Do not give knives or scissors as they indicate a desire to sever the relationship.
. Gifts are opened immediately.

Dining Etiquette

If you are invited to an Argentine home:
. Dress well. Men should wear a jacket and tie. Women should wear a dress or a skirt and blouse.
. Arrive 30 to 45 minutes later than invited for a dinner party. Arriving on time is not the norm.
. Telephone your hosts the following day to thank them.

Watch your Table Manners!

. Wait for the host or hostess to tell you where to sit. There may be a seating plan.
. Table manners are Continental - hold the fork in the left hand and the knife in the right while eating.
. Do not begin eating until the hostess invites you to do so.
. Always keep your hands visible when eating, but do not rest your elbows on the table.
. Wait for a toast to be made before taking the first sip of your drink.
. It is considered polite to leave a small amount of food on your plate when you have finished eating.
. When you have finished eating, place your knife and fork across your plate with the prongs facing down and the handles facing to the right.
. Pouring wine is beset with many rituals and cultural taboos. If at all possible, avoid pouring wine.

Business Etiquette, Customs and Protocol in Argentina

Relationships & Communication

Argentina is a relationship-driven culture, so it is important to build networks and use them.
. Argentines maintain and use an intricate network of family and friends to call upon for help, favours or assistance.
. If a favour is done for you, you will eventually be called upon to re-pay it.
. Name-dropping and nepotism do not have the negative connotations as it has in the West and can be used to your advantage.
. Above all Argentines like to do business with people they know and trust.
. They prefer face-to-face meetings rather than by telephone or in writing, which are seen as impersonal.
. Once a relationship has developed, their loyalty will be to you rather than to the company you represent.
. Looking good in the eyes of others is important to Argentines. Therefore, they will judge you not only on what you say, but also on the way you present yourself.
. Avoid confrontation. Argentines do not like publicly admitting they are incorrect.
. It is imperative to show deference and respect to those in positions of authority. When dealing with people at the same level, communication can be more informal.
. Be alert for nuances and hidden meanings. It is a good idea to repeat details, as you understand them to confirm that you and your business colleagues are in agreement. Business Meeting Etiquette

. Appointments are necessary and should be made 1 to 2 weeks in advance, preferably by e-mail or telephone.
. Avoid January and February, which are their vacation times; the middle weeks of July, which is when many go skiing; and during the two weeks before and after Christmas.
. You should arrive on time for meetings, although the person you are meeting may not be punctual.
. In some older, more bureaucratic organizations, the more important the person you are meeting, the longer they keep you waiting.
. Do not immediately begin discussing business. Small talk helps establish a rapport.
. The person you are meeting with may accept telephone calls and attend to other business while you are there.
. Have all printed material available in both English and Spanish.
. Decisions are not reached at meetings. Meetings are for discussion and to exchange ideas.

Business Negotiations

. Argentines expect to deal with people of similar status.
. Hierarchy is important. Decisions are made at the top of the company. Business moves slowly because it is extremely bureaucratic. Decisions often require several layers of approval.
. Argentines have a difficult time disagreeing, so do not think that things are going well simply because no one is challenging what you say.

What to Wear?

. Business attire is formal and conservative, yet stylish.
. Men should wear dark coloured, conservative business suits.
. Women should wear elegant business suits or dresses.
. Good quality accessories are important for both sexes.
. Dress well if you want to make a good impression.

Business Card Etiquette

. Business cards are given without formal ritual.
. Have one side of your business card translated into Spanish.
. Present your business card so the Spanish side faces the recipient.

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Film and Hot Melt Adhseives Application Method

As with other types of adhesives (such as liquid, paste and powder), film and hot melt adhesives have numerous application methods. Because the compositions of films and hot melts vary, each application method varies according to the adhesive’s medium—as a result, some applications are well-suited to certain methods over others. Film adhesives are specifically for use on flat surfaces, while hot melts have a much broader range of applications. A description of each application method and appropriate use is offered below.

Film Adhesive Application Methods

Dry adhesive films offer several advantages because of their medium. The lack of mixing makes the application process relatively clean, and it doesn’t produce much waste. There are low emissions and environmental concerns associated with film adhesive application, and equipment is typically inexpensive.

Film adhesive traits can vary depending on the exact type of adhesive. Typically, film adhesives are heat-activated, solvent-activated, or pressure sensitive, with some adhesive films featuring a supportive mat.

When preparing to apply a film adhesive, the component should first be coated with a primer, which can be air-sprayed or applied using manufacturer recommended equipment. Primer thickness should be considered because it will affect how strongly the adhesive bonds to the component. Once the primer coating has air dried, application of the film adhesive can begin.

Depending on the type of film, the adhesive layer is applied using one of several methods. Typically, application begins with removing the protective supportive mat and a layer of protective film. Next, the adhesive is laid flat on the component’s surface, though it’s important to make sure that the film doesn’t wrinkle or trap any air. For solvent-activated films, a solvent is wiped on the film (care should be taken not to use too much solvent), and then pressure is used to enable the film to adhere to the component. Heat-activated films must be heated to properly adhere to a component.

Hot Melt Adhesive Application Methods

Hot melt adhesives, also called thermoplastic adhesives, are basically blocks of thermoplastic adhesive material that can be melted at very high temperatures and applied to a component. When a hot melt dries, it has adhered to the component in much the same way as glue. In fact, hot glue guns use a type of hot melt adhesive.

Typically, there are two main systems through which a hot melt adhesive is applied: melt-reservoir systems and pressure feed systems.

Reservoir systems can handle a large amount of adhesive, which begins in a heated reservoir holding area. After being pumped through a feed-hose, the adhesive is either applied via an extrusion gun or wheel, which deposits a layer of adhesive on the specific component. These types of systems are appropriate for low-performance adhesives, and can deposit about 4 to 5 kilograms (kg) of adhesive per hour.

Progressive feed systems are suited to handle a much smaller amount of adhesive. In industrial variants, adhesive pellets are transferred from a hopper to a heated grid, where they melt. Next, the heated adhesive is fed though a pump, pressurized, and then fed through a hose into a heated gun. Around 9 kg per hour, but keeps a very small amount in a melted state at any given time. For non-industrial systems, hand-held glue guns serve as a much smaller type of progressive feed system.

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Aerospace Adhesives

Aerospace Adhesives Buying Guide

The aerospace industry utilizes vehicles that must function at peak performance levels in environments with extreme temperatures and pressures. Because of these constraints, aerospace technology and all supporting materials and tools must function at high level specifications as well. This includes aerospace adhesives, which are used in vehicle construction as well as maintenance on a wide variety of aerospace parts, including pipes, panels, fixtures and tools. Many companies produce different kinds of adhesives that function to various specifications for everything including hobby planes to space vehicles.

Adhesive Basics

Adhesives are classified by their adhesion principles, based on the chemical properties of the adhesive itself. Adhesives that are non-reactive do not require a chemical interaction within the adhesive, but another element to harden, such as heat or pressure.

Non-reactive Adhesives

Drying Adhesives require air drying to solidify. This occurs when the solvent evaporates, and the adhesive hardens. Examples include white glue and rubber cement.

Pressure Sensitive Adhesives require applied pressure between the adhesive and adherend to form a molecular bond between the two elements. These adhesives are not usually intended to form permanent bonds. Examples includes adhesives on sports tapes and bandaids.

Contact Adhesives are rubber variants that can attach to a surface relatively quickly. Once the bonds are formed to the surfaces, the rubbers can be pressed together and bond quite rapidly. Examples include neoprene and certain kinds of laminates.

Hot-melt Adhesives are applied in molten form. When they cool, they form bonds between different surfaces. Examples: hot glue guns

Reactive Adhesives

One-part and Multi-part Adhesives are reactive adhesives that use chemical reactions that form internally or as part of a mix of components. One-part adhesives have a latent chemical reaction that can be catalyzed through the application of an outside energy source, like heat or ultraviolet rays. Multi-part adhesives form bonds when two components are mixed together and applied to a surface. One-part adhesives are generally lighter than multi-part adhesives.

Natural adhesives are formed from animal gelatin or vegetable material, like flour, and are categorized as basic glues.

Synthetic adhesives are often reactive adhesives, and are comprised of a wide variety of materials, such as plastics and emulsions. Examples include epoxies, polyurethane, and acrylic polymers.

Adhesives in the Aerospace Industry

Adhesives are not typically used for structural sealant purposes in aerospace designs, but there are plenty of adhesive applications in aircraft and spacecraft. For instance, many circuits in aerospace applications require electrically conductive or thermally conductive adhesives, so there are many options. These adhesives usually feature metal flakes, such as silver, which is spread into the adhesive to be conductive.

Typically, aerospace adhesives are available in numerous formulations to allow for flexibility in application. Additionally, adhesives can often be custom formulated to assist with optimal application. They are available for:

Transducer seals Fuel assemblies Metal and fiber composites Electronic assemblies Antennas Optical fibers Sensors

Adhesives Over Mechanical Fasteners

Adhesives are often used over mechanical fasteners like bolts or screws when weight factors are important to structural integrity and function, which are common issues in aerospace design and manufacturing. In some instances, mechanical fastening methods must be used, but in many cases, both options are available. Adhesives can be applied to achieve certain aesthetic design or function benefits. For one, adhesives can often be hidden from view, allowing smoother body shape. This can be beneficial for aerodynamics. Additionally, some aerospace designs require very thin, fragile material use. These materials cannot undergo welding or bolting easily, but adhesives can bond materials of all shapes and sizes. Finally, adhesives generally offer lighter weight contributions to the overall vehicle weight, which is another important consideration for aerodynamics and fuel consumption.

Adhesives cannot withstand all kinds of pressures, temperatures, and function stresses. Large, bulky materials that undergo function stress cannot be attached with many types of adhesives because these pressures can wear down and tear at adhesive bonds. Additionally, in cases where adhesives must be cured, the curing method may not interact well with the other materials, resulting in damage or wear. Likewise, environmental and production techniques that structural materials are exposed to may have adverse effects on many types of adhesives.

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Culture Of Ukraine

Cultural differences go very deep. It's not just habits that differ, but also the assumptions and worldview that underlie them. Habits come and go, but worldviews are forever. At the same time, the habits and attitudes of individuals within one culture differ even more widely than the culture as a whole differs from other cultures. Which means that you will find a wide range of behavior and attitudes in Ukraine, some of which will be compatible with your own. Not everyone will do the things I've described below. Some Ukrainians' culture will strike you as incomprehensible and intolerable, while others' behavior and attitudes will seem rational and compatible with your own.

Ukrainian
hospitality In Ukraine guests are given lots of attention. If you are someone's house guest, your hosts will likely take you around town and show you the sights for several days. Traditional Ukrainian attitudes dictate that guests be well-fed and entertained for as long as they stay at your home. Offering a guest a glass of ice water (common behavior in the U.S.) seems an absurdity to Ukrainians, the more so because ice water is thought to cause colds. In the business world, however, drinking bottled water has started to catch on, and being offered a glass of water is no longer an extreme rarity. Body language On average Ukrainians' personal space is smaller than in Germanic and Anglo-saxon cultures. Some people touch each other quite a bit during conversations if they are standing. Greeting women with a kiss on the cheek is common. On the gesticulation scale Ukrainians are more subdued than southern Europeans but more animate than Scandinavians. Gestures tend to be smaller—no American arm-flapping here! Also, smiling is usually reserved for friends. Stiffness and formality is the rule during public speaking. Hollywood has always exaggerated this trait when portraying Soviet leaders. Illnesses Physical sensations and ideas about what makes one sick differ from culture to culture. In Ukraine it is worse to be cold than to be hot. In the U.S. the opposite seems to be true. In the cold necks and heads need to be covered, but gloves are not mandatory. Cold drinks and drafts and sitting on cold surfaces can give you a cold. A draft (draught) is a stream of colder air that seeps into a warm room through a window or open door and cools the area of skin that is exposed to it. So, if you are riding in a stuffy bus on a cold winter day, be careful about opening the window.

You may get some nasty remarks. Superstitions and mysticism Ukrainians have preserved superstitions and omens about things like shaking hands through a doorway, whistling indoors, and other things. Everyone knows these omens and jokes about them, but they avoid breaking them all the same. Western society is more rational not only in this regard, but in every other. Ukrainians' religious views (especially in areas where Orthodoxy dominates) have elements of mysticism and uncertainty, while Western Christians tend to think in terms such as, "to get to heaven you need to do A, B, and C." Attitudes toward money and wealth in Ukraine Wealth in the West is almost universally assumed to be a good thing, but Ukrainians have more ambigious attitudes. Ukraine does not have the concept of "working your way from rags to riches" or the Protestant notion of creating wealth through "good-old honest hard work." This seems to be a hold-over from the Soviet Union, where one did not "buy" an apartment, one "got" an apartment (after years of being on a waiting list). In the USSR one's wealth depended on how close one's connections were to centralized power structures. In Ukraine people are still suspicious (and envious) of the rich. "They must have some special privileges or connections," people assume. One of the main reasons for this distrust of the rich is that just 15 or 20 years ago everyone in the Soviet Union had essentially the same amount of wealth. The popular view is that the only way of getting rich in the decade or so after the fall of the Soviet Union was by abusing one's advantageous position in the government kormushka ("feeding trough"). Since the government controlled most assets, bureaucrats who managed these assets could use their connections to sell off national assets and pocket the money. As a joke goes, don't ask me where I got my first million. Hence, the popular view is that anyone who is rich today must have robbed the nation at some point to get his starting capital.

Another cause of this mistrust of wealth and investment is the fact that for 70 years the Soviet ethical system taught that wealth and greed are the same thing. People were taught modesty and self-sacrifice for the sake of their children's "bright future." Soviet citizens learned to feel guilty for wanting to earn more than they were entitled to and be apologetic about any personal business projects they had. At the same time there was intense competition and jealousy surrounding professional and government positions where one would have more opportunities and a higher salary. These ingrained attitudes are prevalent to this day.

In Ukraine the wealthy — a few of whom may have in fact earned their wealth through "honest hard work" — tend to distance themselves from the poor and envious masses. There is even a special name for the upper class: the "elite." In the Soviet Union one did not become part of the "elite" through hard work, but rather had the fortune to be in the right place and know the right people, and the word today has preserved this hue. The tinted car windows of the rich keep out curious stares. Extravagantly dressed trophy wives in sunglasses who rarely leave their fancy cars are an attribute of many of Ukraine's "new rich." A more modest middle class has only recently begun to appear.

Financial literacy is generally quite low even among intellectuals. When ordinary Ukrainians start making decent money, they tend to "waste" it on friends and relatives rather than hold on to it to build personal wealth. These Ukrainians generally do not have savings other than the proverbial stash of dollars in a jar, since people are suspicious of banks after inflation devoured their life savings in the early 90s. Their financial security is instead a network of relatives and friends whom they borrow from or lend money to freely. In most western countries such financial interdependency is avoided, and if a man has financial troubles he goes bankrupt alone.


Home and family in Ukraine
Ukrainian culture has agrarian roots. Just two generations ago the urban population was a fraction of what it is today after the Soviets' experiment in forced industrialization and urbanization. Almost everyone has grandparents or relatives that live in the countryside. Until perestroika, country folk weren't allowed to move to the city. People still do not move around as much as in the West, especially the middle-aged and elderly. Often one or both grandparents will live with their children and help take care of small children. This was a necessity during Soviet times, when women were drawn into the workforce en masse.


Raising children Grandparents play a greater role in raising children in Ukraine than in the West and especially the U.S. Parents tend to restrain their kids more in public and demand better behavior. There seem to be more overprotective parents than in the West, and children are brought up to do well in school and to keep out of trouble and avoid mistakes. Unfortunately, the vast majority (probably 95%) of school teachers are women, giving children disproportionately few male role models in an already female-dominated culture. Competitiveness and personal initiative are little encouraged in school and elsewhere. Since there are fewer extracurricular activities, children stay home more and generally lead a sheltered lifestyle. They get less experience organizing activities on their own without adult supervision. In addition to perpetuating Ukraine's pseudo-market economy where the concept of "fair competition" is virtually nonexistent, this protective environment helps make Ukrainians the wonderfully domestic and sharing people that so many of them are.

Schooling and higher education in Ukraine School and university instruction in Ukraine and Russia is quite a bit different from the United States. Teachers are seen as authority figures and rarely "pal around" with their students, but generally remain somewhat distant and stern. Students are given more material to learn and with significantly less hands-on practice than in the States. In addition, a universal characteristic of instruction in the former Soviet Union is that every subject is introduced with a "broad theoretical background." In other words, students are taught the historical background and theoretical underpinnings of each subject. On the whole this is commendable and leads to greater understanding and better developed abstract thinking skills than their U.S. counterparts. However, this approach becomes habitual and is applied even when students simply need to be taught a practical skill, which is where Soviet and post-Soviet schooling falters. Ukrainian schools foster the ability to fit in to the system and not stick out. Good behavior in schools is strictly enforced—no rowdiness and disobedience here! Nonetheless, cheating and other forms of "cooperation" are largely ignored and actually fostered by the system. Students learn at a young age to band together and cooperate in the face of injustice and ruthlessness. This mentality carries through to adult life and Ukrainians' attitudes towards power structures (i.e. work employers and government bodies).

Friendship and making acquaintances The word "friend" in Ukrainian or Russian implies a closer relationship than in most other European languages. One has one or two "friends" and many "acquaintances"—quite the opposite of the U.S., where many people have dozens of "friends" but often have no really close friends. In Ukraine, it seems, such aloofness is unheard of. The tendency to form informal relationships easily is part of the national character. Many foreigners note that it is easier to form friendships and relationships in Ukraine. In the U.S., for example, it is easy to get an invitation to do things like play volleyball, go see a movie, go waterskiing, etc., but hard to become someone's friend. In Ukraine people will get together to talk about things that are important to them personally. Westerners often find their emotional needs are met better in Ukraine.

At the same time, clubs and hobby groups and other "collectives" in Ukraine tend to become closed to the outside world because of their emotional attachments and informal relationships. I have seen biking clubs who seem to enjoy hanging out together more than biking and mountaineering clubs with complex rituals and traditions that have nothing to do with mountain climbing. In Ukraine it may be harder to keep focused on one's individual goals because of this emotional collectivism.

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Printed Tapes

Printed Tapes Buying Guide

Printed tape is typically produced via the flexography printing process. These products often feature a natural or synthetic adhesive and a pressure sensitive backing. Available pre-printed or custom designed in a variety of ink colors and materials, printed tape serves as label indicators, safety tapes and branding and marketing tools, as it may have company logos printed on it. Instructional sealant tape may be used as an alternative to labeled boxes, and may also help prevent package pilferage.

Types and Associated Materials

Printed tape is available in different tensile strengths and adheres to a variety of surfaces. Fonts and prints may be custom designed from a selection of Pantone inks. Common tape backing variations include polypropylene, PVC, polyesters, reinforced and non-reinforced gummy tape and cloth materials. The adhesive materials include acrylics, hot melts and natural rubber. Printed tape is fabricated for both indoor and outdoor use, with specific applications that include:

Branding and Marketing- A printed tape featuring a company logo or design may be fabricated by manufacturers. Tape types may be printed with messages, and some suppliers accept logo and other artwork in camera ready format. Additionally, tape companies offer both an assortment of stock tape colors and custom-match options.

Identifiers- Manufacturers will often offer pre-printed messages on tape for shipment purposes and as standalone indicators, such as “caution” signs. Various manufacturers supply OSHA- compliant warning tape that can typically be applied both indoors and outdoors and are commonly fabricated with reflective materials.

Loss Prevention- Printed tape is often required to draw attention to security and shipping instructions. Pre-printed tape can be designed for loss prevention use, and can be fabricated so that it cannot be removed without detection. For example, some tape is constructed with an adhesive that remains when the tape is removed, leaving indicator messages such as “VOID.”

Additional Uses and Considerations:

Letter and Print Transfer- Tape is often sought for its transfer capability, and is used for letter placement on logos or signs. For this type of application, suppliers fabricate the tape with a natural “low-tack” adhesive backing.

To prolong the use of printed tape, it is essential to store them in a suitable (sterilized and dry) environment. As with all tape products, consult with the tape manufacturer to verify requirements.

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Cultures Of Madagascar

Most contemporary and traditional Malagasy music revolves around dance rhythms with influences from Indonesia and the African mainland, notably Kenya. These rhythms are accompanied by the flute, whistle and valiha, a unique, 28-stringed instrument resembling a bassoon but played more like a harp. The lokanga voatavo, or cordophone, is also popular, as are a few types of guitar, including the kabosy, similar to a ukelele. Vaky soava is a rhythmic style of singing accompanied only by hand clapping, and perhaps the most renowned exponent is Paul Bert Rahasimanana, who developed a personal style that included adding a musical accompaniment. He weaves themes of poverty, love, loss and hope into his music.The regional town of Fianarantsoa has developed into a literary capital of sorts in recent years, and several contemporary novelists and writers work there. While literature didn't really flower until the 1930s and 40s, traditional oratory, called kabary, is highly regarded. Kabary's roots are in early political assemblies, in which each speaker spoke in turn. It evolved and was eventually popularised and extended to the general public as a form of entertainment. Kabary is an integral part of hira gasy, popular spectacles that include music, dancing and story telling, held regularly in Tana on most Sunday afternoons.

While Madagascar officially shares one culture and language, the Malagasy people are divided into 18 tribes whose boundaries are based on old kingdoms rather than ethnic characteristics. Most Malagasy are of mixed race, but some, such as the Merina from the Antananarivo area, are predominantly Indonesian in appearance, and others, like the Vezo of the south-west coast, have close ties to eastern Africa and look like black Africans.

Despite the status of French as the official language, Malagasy is widely spoken. It belongs to the Austronesian language family, which includes Indonesian and many Polynesian languages, and its closest linguistic cousin is spoken on southern Borneo. It has also adopted words from French, Arabic, nearby African languages and English.

Around 50% of Malagasy follow traditional religions, and even confirmed Christians (41%) usually still devoutly carry out traditional practices. The Malagasy regard the dead with awe and reverence, and give the afterlife as much importance as the present; the dead play a role in the life of the living rarely seen in other cultures. Mourners carry out elaborate rituals at funerals, and if it is deemed that the dead are displeased, further rituals are enacted to appease them. The most famous of these is the famadihana, or turning of the bones, when the dead are exhumed, entertained, talked to and reburied with gifts and new shrouds. There are several Muslim communities, and Muslims comprise about 7% of the population.

The dominant element of any Malagasy meal is vary or rice, and vary doesn't accompany the meal, the meal accompanies the vary. Roadside canteens normally offer a big plate of rice with a few tidbits to garnish it, such as beef, fish or poultry. Other than rice, favourite Malagasy dishes include romazava (beef and vegetable stew) and ravitoto (pork stew with manioc greens). Many dishes are accompanied by achards, a hot, pickled vegetable curry. The seafood on the coast is excellent and cheap, and you can eat a range of tropical fruits (voankazo) such as pineapples, lychees, mangoes and bananas for most of the year.

The French influence ensures that the coffee is excellent and more popular than tea. The local THB or Three Horses Beer is also very good. Around Ambalavao and Fianarantsoa they produce several excellent wines, including a greyish-coloured one appropriately enough called gris. The rotguts come in several different kinds but all are strong enough to unblock your pipes. Toaka grasy is a crude rum made from rice and sugar cane; trembo is a coconut toddy; and litchel is an alcoholic fruit drink made from lychees. Up the scale is a distilled rum called roma.

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Double Coated Tapes

An Overview: Double Coated Tapes

Double coated tapes are pressure sensitive adhesives that are generally fabricated in several types of materials, including paper, foam and cloth. They are utilized for bonding and sealing a variety of similar and disparate materials and substrates. These adhesive products are also used for sound dampening purposes. They are manufactured in a range of tensile strengths, and may be applied to low and high surface energy materials. Variants of these tapes are effective for their UV and age resistance. Additionally, manufacturers provide the option of die-cutting depending on the application requirement.

Standard Applications and Industries:

Industries that utilize double coated tapes include the medical, appliance, automotive, and electronic sectors and standard applications include:

Mounting substrates (e.g., plates, hooks and mouldings) Sound dampening Bonding (e.g., display, frames and signs) Splicing (e.g., fabric webs, paper, films, etc.) Insulation against light, dust and noise

Tape Types and Compositions

Double coated tapes feature an adhesive coating comprised of a rubber or synthetic rubber adhesive. These tapes are compatible with a range of surface materials including papers, fabrics and films. Various double coated tape products are designed for high shear and high temperature performance. Double-coated tape materials fall into the following subcategories:

Foam Tapes: These tapes are composed of open or closed cells and are typically coated with an acrylic adhesive on both sides. Common variations of this type of tape include polyethylene, urethane and vinyl materials. Foam tapes are suitable for mounting purposes and gasket applications and for sound dampening purposes. These tapes are resistant to a wide range of temperature applications.

Cotton (Cloth) Tapes: Generally, cloth tapes feature a flexibleback, and often the adhesive commonly will have a heavy coating, which is ideal for irregular and dissimilar surface applications. Standard uses for this type of tape include mounting for printing industry applications and sealing, such as carpet installation. These tapes are efficient for their easy unwind capability.

Paper Tapes: Typically hand tearable, these tapes arecoated on both sides with a rubber adhesive and are often used for general purpose bonding applications and where temporary holds are required. These tapes are also efficient for bonding irregular surfaces. Tape liners are available in different colors. Variations of this type of tape may be resistant to certain chemicals. Additionally, paper tapes may be applied manually or with an applicator. Other types of paper tapes include crepe tapes and flat back tapes.

Additional Considerations

Prior to application, it is essential to check the substrate surface area to ensure that the space is oil-free and clear of contaminants that might affect the adhesive. Manufacturers advise checking the temperature application range, as colder temperatures may not be suitable for optimal adhesive strength. Application tools are available, although various adhesives may be applied manually.

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culture Of Cameroon

Language in Cameroon
Cameroon is home to 230 languages. These include 55 Afro-Asiatic languages, two Nilo-Saharan languages, and 173 Niger-Congo languages. This latter group is divided into one West Atlantic language (Fulfulde), 32 Adamawa-Ubangui languages, and 142 Benue-Congo languages (130 of which are Bantu languages).

English and French are official languages, a heritage of Cameroon's colonial past as both a colony of the United Kingdom and France from 1916 to 1960. The nation strives toward bilingualism, but in reality, very few Cameroonians speak both French and English, and many speak neither. The government has established several bilingual schools in an effort to teach both languages more evenly. Cameroon is a member of both the Commonwealth of Nations and La Francophonie.

Kamtok, or Pidgin English, has in many ways been the lingua franca of Cameroon since the 1880s. It is commonly used as a vehicle for enhancing communication in this bilingual country that has approximately 250 native dialects. There are several variations on Kamtok based upon where it is used -- in grass fields, in the Catholic Church, in the Francophone areas of the country, in the southwest of the country, and among the Bororo cattle traders.

Cameroonian Society and Culture

The People

Cameroon has a diverse population comprising approximately 250 ethnic groups that then form 5 regional/cultural groups. These are western highlanders (also called grassfielders), which include the Bamileke, Bamoun, and many smaller groups in the northwest; coastal tropical forest people, which include the Bassa, Doula, and many smaller groups in the southwest; southern tropical forest people, which include the Beti, Beulu, Fang, and Pygmies; Muslims of the northern semi-arid regions and central highlands, which include the Fulani; and the Kirdi, non-Muslims peoples of the northern desert and central highlands.

Religion

The constitution guarantees freedom of religion. About 40% of the population follows some form of indigenous beliefs, 40% adhere to a form of Christianity, and 20% are Muslim. The various religious groups get along reasonably well, although there have been some problems reported by religious minorities in various parts of the country. The north of the country is primarily Muslim while the south tends to have more Christians.

The Family

The extended family is the focus of the social system. It is the extended family and includes grandparents, cousins, aunts, uncles, etc. Members of the extended family are considered as close as the nuclear family is in the West.

Family obligations take precedence over pretty much everything else in life. Individuals achieve recognition and social standing through their extended family. The young are expected to care for elderly members of the extended family; retirement homes are an alien concept.

As with many family orientated cultures nepotism does not have the negative connotation. In fact, hiring relatives is part of the cultural context since it not only provides for the family, but also ensures that Cameroonians work with those they know and trust.

Cameroonians who have a common background tend to organize themselves into small groups commonly called associations. Individual members refer to themselves as sons and daughters of a given community.

Associations handle two major financial activities. A trouble bank is a special assistance fund to which every member contributes money at regular intervals and from which money is given to members who fall victim to a misfortune. A "njangi" is a financial activity similar to a bank based on mutual trust. An unemployed but hard working association member who does not own property or real estate may receive a loan from the njangi.

Etiquette and Customs in Cameroon
Meeting and Greeting

• Cameroonian greetings vary between the Francophone and Anglophone areas.
• In both areas, men shake hands with each other.
• In the Francophone south, close friends may embrace while brushing cheeks and kissing the air along with a handshake.
• In the Anglophone north, close friends have a unique handshake in which, as they pull their hands back they snap the other person’s middle finger with their thumb.
• As a sign of respect men often lower their head and avert their eyes when greeting someone superior to them in age or position.
• Some Muslims will not shake hands across genders.
• Since this is a hierarchical society, elders are greeted first.
• Women tend not to look the other person in the eye even if it is another woman.
• Greetings should never be rushed. It is important to take time to inquire about the person’s family and other matters of general interest during the greeting process.

Gift Giving Etiquette

• If you are invited to a Cameroonian’s home, bring fruit, whiskey, or wine to the host.
• Do not bring alcohol if the host is Muslim.
• A small gift for the children is always a nice touch. School materials or sweets are standard.
• Gifts are not always opened when received.
• Gifts are given with two hands or the right hand only; never the left hand.

Dining Etiquette

If you are invited to a Cameroonian’s house:

• Dress well – this demonstrates respect towards your hosts.
• Shake hands with each guest individually starting with the most senior people present.
• Do not discuss business during a social function.
• The home is private. Do not ask for a tour.
• Cameroonians are somewhat formal and believe good table manners demonstrate respect.
• When in doubt, watch what others do and emulate their behaviour.
• In traditional homes, men eat first, then women, and then children. A foreign woman will generally be invited to eat with the men since she is a guest.
• In many homes, a washing basin and soap is brought out before the meal so that guests may wash their hands.
• Expect to have your own shallow bowl and to take food from a communal bowl.
• Hierarchy dictates that the eldest person is the first to take food from the communal bowl.
• Many Cameroonians eat with their hands, although foreign guests may be offered cutlery.
• If you use your hands then use the right hand.
• As a guest, you will be offered prized delicacies such as chicken gizzards. This is considered an honour. If you cannot eat them, thank your host profusely and request that it is more appropriate that it be given to the eldest person present.

Business Etiquette and Protocol Meeting Etiquette

• Much of the information in the general etiquette section applies here.
• It is important to use a person’s honorific title and surname when conversing. Government officials may be addressed as “Excellency” without using their surname.
• Honorific and professional titles in French or English should be used in the appropriate area of the country.
• Wait to be invited before moving to a first name basis.
• Business cards are given without formal ritual.
• Present and receive business cards with the right hand only or with both hands.
• Present your card so it is readable to the recipient.
• Make a point of studying any business card you receive. It is a common practice to comment on some of the information or the card design.

Business Meetings

Meetings are not as private as those in Europe or North America may be used to. The room can actually be shared with other people or people may walk into a meeting half-way through and interrupt. One should not take this as a sign of disrespect or lack of seriousness; once the interruption is over things will get back on track.

Agendas are really part of the Cameroonian business culture. If used they generally act as a starting point for discussions rather than a map.

There is a formal nature to meetings in Cameroon. It is suggested that you not remove your suit jacket unless invited to do so, as this is seen as too casual.

Business communication is relatively formal and follows rules of etiquette and protocol. It is rude to turn your back on someone who is senior to you, even if it is merely to shake hands with someone else.

Cameroonians are expressive communicators who practice conversational overlap - when they think that they know what you are about to say, they will interrupt you to agree, disagree, or change the subject. Many Cameroonians use proverbs when speaking to enhance their communication.

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Culture Of Spain

The Spanish Language
The official language is Spanish, also called Castilian, and is the first language of over 72% of the population. Galician is spoken in the region of Galicia and Basque by increasing numbers of the population of Euskadi, the Spanish Basque Country. Catalan is spoken in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands, and the closely-related Valencian in the Valencia region. All these languages have official regional status. Other minority languages including Aragonese and Asturian are not officially recognised. 
Spanish Family Values

The family is the basis of the social structure and includes both the nuclear and the extended family, which sometimes provides both a social and a financial support network.
. Today, it is less common than previously for family members to work in a family business, as personal preferences are important and university education is general
. The structure and the size of the family vary, but generally, people live until longer lives, have fewer children than before, and fewer people live in their homes with extended family.
. Familial networks have become less tight. The greatest changes have occurred inside families, between men and woman, and the parents and children because the values that inspire these relations have changed. Machismo

. Machismo is the word for male dominance, and the culture of old men who created it has changed dramatically.
. Spain is a very equalitarian society, the birth rate is the one of the lowest in Europe, and women are present at university and work.

Religion in Spain

. The majority of Spaniards are formally Roman Catholic, although different religious beliefs are accepted.
. During the history of Spain, there have been long periods of where different religious groups have coexisted, including Muslims, Jews and Christians.
. Still some traditions manifest more like a cultural event than a religious one.
. During Holy Week, many participants of the processions wear peaked, black hats as the sign of a penitent and walk barefoot, carrying a burden of some kind.
. Religious history is apparent in every small town, where the most grandiose building is typically the church. In the large cities the Cathedrals are almost museums.

Etiquette & Customs in Spain Meeting Etiquette

. When introduced expect to shake hands.
. Once a relationship is established, men may embrace and pat each other on the shoulder.
. Female friends kiss each other on both cheeks, starting with the left.
. People are often referred to as Don or Dona and their first name when in formal occasion as a general rule.
. Many men use a two-handed shake where the left hand is placed on the right forearm of the other person.

Dining Etiquette

. If invited to a Spaniard's home, you can bring chocolates, pastries, or cakes; wine, liqueur, or brandy; or flowers to the hostess.
. If you know your hosts have children, they may be included in the evening, so a small gift for them is always appreciated. .

Table manners

. Remain standing until invited to sit down. You may be shown to a particular seat.
. Always keep your hands visible when eating. Keep your wrists resting on the edge of the table. 
. Do not begin eating until the hostess starts.
. Use utensils to eat most food. Even fruit is eaten with a knife and fork.
. If you have not finished eating, cross your knife and fork on your plate with the fork over the knife.
. The host gives the first toast.
. An honoured guest should return the toast later in the meal.
. It is acceptable for a woman to make a toast.
. Indicate you have finished eating by laying your knife and fork parallel on your plate, tines facing up, with the handles facing to the right.
. Do not get up until the guest of honour does.

Business Etiquette and Protocol

Relationships & Communication

The Spanish prefer to do business with those they know and trust.
. It is important that you spend sufficient time letting your business colleagues get to know you.
. Once you develop a relationship, it will prevail even if you switch companies, since your Spanish business colleagues' allegiance will be to you rather than the company you represent.
. Face-to-face contact is preferred to written or telephone communication.
. The way you present yourself is of critical importance when dealing with Spaniards.
. It is best to display modesty when describing your achievements and accomplishments.
. Communication is formal and follows rules of protocol.
. Avoid confrontation if at all possible. Spaniards do not like to publicly admit that they are incorrect.
. Trust and personal relationships are the cornerstone of business.
. Spaniards, like many societies, are concerned that they look good in the eyes of others and try to avoid looking foolish at all times. Business Negotiation

. Spaniards place great importance on the character of the person with whom they do business.
. Hierarchy and rank are important. You should deal with people of similar rank to your own.
. Decision-making is held at the top of the company, since this is a hierarchical country. You may never actually meet the person who ultimately makes the decision.
. You may be interrupted while you are speaking. This is not an insult, it merely means the person is interested in what you are saying.
. Spaniards do not like to lose face, so they will not necessarily say that they do not understand something, particularly if you are not speaking Spanish. You must be adept at discerning body language.
. Spaniards are very thorough. They will review every minute detail to make certain it is understood.
. First you must reach an oral understanding. A formal contract will be drawn up at a later date.
. Spaniards expect both sides to strictly adhere to the terms of a contract.

Business Meeting Etiquette

. Appointments are mandatory and should be made in advance, preferably by telephone or fax. Reconfirm in writing or by telephone the week before.
. You should try to arrive on time for meetings.
. The first meeting is generally formal and is used to get to know each other. Do not be surprised if no business is actually conducted during the first meeting.
. Agendas are often used but not always needed to be followed too strict.
. Make sure all your printed material is available in both English and Spanish.
. Not all businesspeople speak English, so it is wise to check if you should hire an interpreter.
. Several people may speak at once. You may be interrupted while you are speaking.
. Decisions are not reached at meetings. Meetings are for discussion and to exchange ideas.
. Most Spaniards do not give their opinion at meetings. Therefore, it is important to watch their non-verbal communication.

Dress Etiquette

. Business dress is stylish yet, conservative.
. Dress as you would in the rest of Europe.
. Elegant accessories are important for both men and women.

Business Cards

. Present your business card to the receptionist upon arriving.
. Have one side of your card translated into Spanish.
. Hand your card so the Spanish side faces the recipient.

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